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Course Descriptions
Political Science (POLS)
College of Arts and Sciences
2011-2012 Bachelor of Arts Degree Requirement Sheets
2011-2012 Bachelor of Science Degree Requirement Sheets- click here for previous years
An asterisk (*) following the four-digit number indicates the course is approved for graduate credit. Graduate College
POLS 1010
Studies in American Government. 1-2 credits, max 2. Special study in American government to allow transfer students to fulfill general education requirements as established by Regents’ policy.
POLS 1113
American Government. Organization, processes and functions of the national government of the United States. Satisfies, with HIST 1103 or 1483 or 1493, the State Regents requirement of six credit hours of American history and American government before graduation.
POLS 2013
(S) Introduction to World Politics. Analysis of the major concepts in international relations - power, sovereignty, self-help, cooperation, dependency, and introduction to the dominant theoretical approaches to its study realism, pluralism, Marxism, and feminism.
POLS 2023
The Individual and the Law. Introduction to the U.S. Constitution, legal reasoning, legal research techniques, and topical issues of U.S. public law.
POLS 2033
Introduction to Public Administration. Public administration, including administration, administrative organization, decision-making, governmental public relations and administrative responsibilities.
POLS 2113
(S) Introduction to Comparative Politics. A comparative study of the political processes and institutions of contemporary societies. Introduction to the concepts and methods of comparative politics.
POLS 2993
Honors Tutorial in Political Science. Prerequisite(s): 1113. Honors standing, and invitation by head of department. For the special needs of the sophomore-level honors student majoring in political science who wishes to study individualized topics at an accelerated pace in a tutorial format. After mastering basic principles in an area of interest the student will conduct independent research under close faculty supervision and prepare a report or reports.
POLS 3003
(I,S) The Soviet Union: History, Society and Culture. A comprehensive view of the Soviet Union, stressing those issues in the political, economic, technological, geographical and cultural spheres which are most relevant to the current situation. Accessible to beginning undergraduates. (Same course as HIST 3003 & RUSS 3003)
POLS 3033*
International Law. The nature and scope of public international law, with emphasis on problems related to the recognition of states and governments, jurisdiction over nationals and aliens, and state responsibility in cases of expropriation and revolutionary damage.
POLS 3053
(I,S) Introduction to Central Asian Studies. A comprehensive view of newly-emerged Central Asian states examining the history, politics, economics, geography, and culture of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan as reflected in their thoughts, religion, literature, and architecture, in the past, and the strategic importance of their natural wealth for the present and future. (Same course as GEOG 3053, HIST 3053 & RUSS 3053)
POLS 3100
Political Science Internship. 1-6 credits, max 6. Prerequisite(s): Consent of department. Internship education experience in a specific subfield in the discipline of political science.
POLS 3103
Introduction to Political Inquiry. Prerequisite(s): 60 credit hours or 45 hours with GPA of 3.25, including 2113. The scope and methods of political science. Scientific methodology applied to political phenomena, hypothesis, measurement, literature review, research designs, introductory data analysis and writing in political science.
POLS 3123
(I) Politics of Russia/Former Soviet Union. Political processes, governmental institutions and public policies of post-Soviet Russia. Parties, elections and citizen participation in government.
POLS 3143
(I) Politics of Western Europe. State-society relations in key West European countries, including political processes, governmental institutions, cultural pluralism and gender relations.
POLS 3163
(I) Politics of Africa. Analysis of processes, institutions and contemporary trends in the politics of selected African countries, including political development, democratization, conflict, political role of the military, political economy, and social movements.
POLS 3193
(I,S) Politics of Latin America. Analysis of processes, institutions and contemporary trends in the politics of selected Latin American countries; political development, democratization, political role of the military, political economy and social movements.
POLS 3223
(I) Politics of East Asia. Political processes, governmental institutions and administration in China, Japan, and Korea.
POLS 3313
(I) Politics of the Middle East. Analysis of political institutions and processes with emphasis on selected countries of the Middle East; the social and economic basis of politics; nationalism, political development and factors of instability and change.
POLS 3353
Parties and Interest Groups. Political parties and interest groups as institutions; their role in elections and government.
POLS 3414
Political Campaigns and Candidacy. Lab 2. Planning, fundraising, targeting, public opinion, support operations, voter contact, the mass media and candidate activities. Lab work in campaigns or government offices.
POLS 3423
Voting and Elections. Electoral systems and their relationship to political development, political socialization, issue emergence, voting patterns and electoral cycles.
POLS 3453
The Legislative Process. The power and organization of legislatures, as well as the selection and behavior of legislators. Special attention given to the U.S. Congress.
POLS 3483
The American Presidency. The politics of presidential selection, removal and succession; formal and informal powers of the president; relations with Congress, the national judiciary and national executive branch; proposed reforms and the vice-presidency.
POLS 3493*
Public Policy. Prerequisite(s): Any one of 1013, 2033, 2113, ECON 1113, 2123, SOC 1113, PHIL 2113. Identification of policy options open to policy makers and examination of measurements and rationales underlying governmental programs.
POLS 3513
Public Opinion and Polling. The nature of public opinion. Public opinion polling, the factors influencing opinion formation, and the effects of public opinion on policy and policy makers.
POLS 3523
Money, Media and Politics. Prerequisite(s): 1113. Techniques used by successful candidates for elective office to present their positions to the voting public. Beginning with the basic elements of fundraising exploration of current campaign finance laws, funding techniques and campaign budgeting. Message development, media production and ad placement. Preparation of a fundraising strategy.
POLS 3533
Political Lobby and Grassroots Organization. Prerequisite(s): 1113. Traditional special interest lobbying and the rapidly emerging local grassroots constituent movement. New federal laws pertaining to lobbying and rules that govern the conduct of state lobbying. The implications of technology and the potential advent of a plebiscite form of government. Development of complete grassroots strategy on an issue either at the federal or state level.
POLS 3613*
State and Local Government. Political processes, government and administration of American states, cities and counties; special emphasis on Oklahoma.
POLS 3663
Introduction to Political Thought. The teachings of the three lasting traditions of Western political thought: classical, Christian and modern.
POLS 3683
American Politics in Contemporary Film. Prerequisite(s): 1113. The effect of politics on contemporary film. Exploration of the often subtle political imagery and symbolism contained in film.
POLS 3733
Incident Management and Tactical Operations. Strategic management of an emergency incident through the use of the Incident Management System. A thorough study of the IMS system and tactical decision-making forming the base for case study analysis and emergency operations simulations.
POLS 3763
Mitigation and Recovery. Prerequisite(s): 3813. Introduction to recovery and mitigation activities for emergency managers. Covers components, policies, programs and organizations related to recovery and mitigation, illustrates course concepts with case studies.
POLS 3813
Aim and Scope of Emergency Management. An overview of the history and philosophy of the current emergency management system. Concepts, issues and programs associated with the development of an emergency management program. Local, state and federal roles and responsibilities for responding to disasters and emergencies with emphasis on man-made natural and technological hazards.
POLS 3893
Terrorism and Emergency Management. A general introduction to the basic concepts for preparedness, response and command functions at the scene of a potential terrorist incident.
POLS 3953
(D,S) Minorities in the American Political System. Prerequisite(s): 1113. Examination of mass and elite level behavior of minorities in the contemporary U.S. political system.
POLS 3973
(D) Race, Politics and Sports. Prerequisite(s): 1113. Historical, as well as the contemporary relationship, between race, politics and sports in the U.S. political system.
POLS 3983
(S) Courts and Judicial Process. The American judiciary and legal process from a political perspective with particular emphasis on judicial organization and powers, recruitment, fact-finding, decision-making, impact of decisions, the legal profession and relations among courts. Oklahoma judicial organization.
POLS 3993
Legal Research and Analysis. Prerequisite(s): 2023 or HONR 2013. Introduction to legal research methods, including state and federal reported cases, digests, annotated codes, state and federal administrative regulations, and computerized legal research, as well as an introduction to legal reasoning and analysis and the preparation of case briefs and memoranda.
POLS 4000*
Topics in American Politics. 3 credits, max 6. Prerequisite(s): 1113 and 45 earned hours or consent of instructor. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in American politics, including American political behavior and political leadership. May be repeated with different topics.
POLS 4010*
Topics in International Relations. 3 credits, max 6. Prerequisite(s): 2013 or 2113 or consent of instructor. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in International Relations. May be repeated with different topics.
POLS 4013*
American Foreign Policy. Major problems and policies of American foreign relations since World War II and description of foreign formulation and aid administration.
POLS 4020*
Topics in Comparative Politics. 3 credits, max 6. Prerequisite(s): 2013 or 2113 or consent of instructor. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in Comparative Politics. May be repeated with different topics.
POLS 4043
Politics of the Global Economy. Theory and practice of international political economics. The patterns of association between political and market-based process among nation states. Emphasis on interactions among advanced industrial states, transnational phenomena, and opportunities and pitfalls in north-south relations. No credit for credit in INTL 5043
POLS 4053
(I) War and World Politics. Foreign policies of major powers, areas of tension and sources of international conflict.
POLS 4100*
Problems of Government, Politics and Public Policy. 1-6 credits, max 6. Prerequisite(s): 60 credit hours, or 45 hours with GPA of 3.25, including 1013. Special problem areas of government, politics and public policy concentrating on topics not covered in other departmental course offerings.
POLS 4113*
International Institutions. The organization, procedures, functions and role of international institutions, with emphasis on the United Nations and related agencies.
POLS 4223
Comparative Political and Social Movements and the Politics of Protest. Prerequisite(s): 1113. The origins, activities and impact of political and social movements. Concepts and theoretical approaches related to political and social movements and these concepts and approaches to case studies of several contemporary movements in the United States, Latin America, and Europe.
POLS 4353*
Administrative Law. Legal powers, limits, and procedures of administrative agencies with emphasis on federal and state administrative procedure acts.
POLS 4363*
Environmental Law and Policy. Statutory law, case law, and administrative practices relating to regulation of the environment including environmental impact statements, pollution, public lands, and preservation law.
POLS 4403*
Urban Politics and Management. Problems of governing and managing American metropolitan areas.
POLS 4413*
Government Budgeting. The politics, planning and administration of government budgets. (Same course as 5320*)
POLS 4453*
Public Personnel Administration. Problems, processes, and procedures of public personnel administration. (Same course as 5333*)
POLS 4553
American Political Thought. A survey of the major developments in American political thought from the Colonial period to the present, followed by a topical analysis of important recent theoretical developments in political science.
POLS 4573
Democratic Theory. Investigates the origins, development, and continuing challenges of theories of democratic government, with particular emphasis on the American political tradition. Topics include citizenship, accountability, voting and elections, federalism, and institutional design.
POLS 4593*
Natural Resources and Environmental Policy. Current issues in the law, politics and administration of energy, land, water, mineral and other natural resources policy with particular emphasis on relations to environmental policies and law.
POLS 4623
(S) Oklahoma Politics. Prerequisite(s): 1113. Introduction to Oklahoma Politics. Topics include the evolution of Oklahoma political institutions; the struggle to shape the Oklahoma political culture with special attention to the role of race and woman suffrage; political issues; the structure of Oklahoma political institutions at the state and local levels; and elections.
POLS 4653
(H) Contemporary Political Thought. An analysis of 19th and 20th century political ideas, with emphasis on the rise and fall of ideologies along side controversies over relativism, positivism, pragmatism, and resurgent religious faiths.
POLS 4670*
Topics in Political Theory. 3 credits, max 6. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in classic, modern, or American political theory. May be repeated with different topics.
POLS 4693
Women in Politics. Changing role of women in government and politics. Voting behavior, public opinion, women in government, and the women’s movement.
POLS 4963
U.S. Constitution: Civil Rights. Prerequisite(s): 2023 or 3983 recommended. Development of principles of constitutional law by the Supreme Court concerning individual and group rights, with particular emphasis on equal protection of the laws concepts in matters of race, gender, wealth, citizenship, legislative reapportionment and voting rights, government employment and affirmative action programs. Legal research techniques.
POLS 4973*
U.S. Constitution: Civil Liberties. Prerequisite(s): 2023 or 3983 recommended. Development of principles of constitutional law by the Supreme Court concerning freedom of speech expression, religious liberty, property rights, 5th and 14th amendments due process concepts and procedure requirements at national and state level.
POLS 4980*
Topics in Public Law. 3 credits, max 6. Prerequisite(s): 2023 and 3983 or 3993 or consent of instructor. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in Public Law. May be repeated with different topics.
POLS 4990*
Independent Study. 1-3 credits, max 9. Application of major relevant theoretical perspectives to selected case studies of political problems and issue areas. Theories and attendant case studies selected by visiting faculty members.
POLS 4993
Political Science Honors Thesis. Prerequisite(s): Departmental invitation, senior standing, Honors Program participation. A guided reading and research program ending with an honors thesis under the direction of a faculty member, with second faculty reader and oral examination. Required for graduation with departmental honors in political science.
POLS 5000*
Thesis. 1-6 credits, max 6.
POLS 5013*
Quantitative Methods of Political Analysis. Required of all graduate students. Fundamental methodological issues in the scientific study of politics. Logic of science, principles of research design and computer data manipulation and analysis.
POLS 5020*
Creative Component. 3 credits, max 6. Individually supervised research.
POLS 5023*
Foundation of Political Science. Overview of the foundational works, theories and approaches that define the discipline of political science and serve as bridges across its subfields.
POLS 5030*
Internship in Public Administration and Government. 1-6 credits, max 6. Individually supervised internships in administrative and governmental career areas. Paper required.
POLS 5040*
Readings in Politics, Public Policy or Public Administration. 1-6 credits, max 6. Prerequisite(s): Consent of supervising professor. Readings in the student’s major area of study.
POLS 5100*
Advanced Problems in Government, Politics, and Public Policy. 3 credits, max 6. Special seminar, topics vary from semester to semester.
POLS 5103*
Research Design. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing. Overview of research design, including conceptualization and operationalization, literature review, deductive and inductive theorizing, hypothesis testing, quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis.
POLS 5113*
Seminar in Public Program Evaluation. Methodology of evaluation research in public programs. Emphasis will be placed on designing and interpreting evaluative studies rather than the mastery of particular mathematical, statistical or computer skills.
POLS 5133*
Politics and Political Economy in the European Union. The institutions and policy-making process of the European Union (EU) and the theoretical traditions in the study of European integration. The institutional form of the EU and the type of European policy that is emerging.
POLS 5143*
Social and Political Perspectives in Europe. Examination of the current and historical social, cultural and political landscapes of European societies. Material related to identity politics, citizenship, democratization and collective memory feature regularly in the course.
POLS 5203*
ProSeminar in International Relations. A general survey intended to introduce students to major theoretical paradigms, applications, and debates in the field of international relations.
POLS 5210*
Topics Seminar in International Relations. 3 credits, max 6. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in International Relations. May be repeated up to 6 hours with different topics.
POLS 5213*
Seminar in the International Political Economy. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing. Research on the mechanics and theories of interaction between economic and political phenomena. (Same course as INTL 5213*)
POLS 5300*
Seminar in Emergency Management. 1-3 credits, max 6. Topics in emergency management such as terrorism, emergency management planning-mitigation, response, and recovery, or delivering emergency medical services (EMS).
POLS 5303*
Introduction to Disasters and Hazards. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing. Explores the range of natural, technological, and terrorist hazards and disasters. Provides an overview of the body of disaster research on mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.
POLS 5313*
Public Management. Introduction to the general principles of management as they are applied in the public sector. Systems theory, organization design, and techniques of supervision.
POLS 5320*
Seminar in Public Budgeting and Finance. 3 credits, max 6. Major processes and practices involved in governmental budgeting in the United States at national, state and local level. (Same course as 4413*)
POLS 5323*
Urban Politics and Management. Introduction to the concepts, processes and techniques of managing urban political systems to include problems of leadership, decision-making, general management and group behavior.
POLS 5333*
Seminar in Public Personnel Administration. Current practices, problems and issues in public sector personnel administration, including merit system, civil service reform collective bargaining, and equal opportunity and affirmative action.
POLS 5343*
Seminar in Fire and Emergency Services Administration. Introduction to policies, procedures and administrative process required to deliver fire and emergency services; detailed examination of the social, political and economic issues that have an impact on service delivery and organizational approaches.
POLS 5353*
Seminar in Design, Structure and Processes of Public Organizations. Administration in the public sector, stressing traditional and emerging organization structures. Awareness of administrative processes and environment that include program design, implementation, and administrative accountability.
POLS 5363*
Public Sector Dispute Resolution. Prerequisite(s): Senior or graduate standing. Labor relations and employment issues in the public sector, and the various methods for resolving government personnel conflicts without resort to violence or litigation. Focus on labor law, employment law and Alternative Dispute Resolution as they apply to government employment.
POLS 5373*
Populations at Risk. Describes populations at risk for increased injury, death and property loss. Identifies policies, programs and resources for risk reduction. Applies research for purposes of planning and capacity building.
POLS 5383*
Disaster Recovery. Prerequisite(s): 5683. Processes, conditions and components of recovery in disaster contexts. Topics include environmental, economic, housing, infrastructure, and policy. Roles of voluntary organizations; securing and managing resources.
POLS 5393*
Politics of Disaster. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5303 or consent of instructor. Situates disaster phases in the political context at the local, national, and international levels. Examines research on specific events and their interactive effects between the political system and various phases of disaster.
POLS 5403*
ProSeminar in Comparative Politics. Designed as a graduate seminar to familiarize graduate students with the core research traditions and theoretical developments in the field of comparative politics.
POLS 5410*
Topics Seminar in Comparative Politics. 3 credits, max 6. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in Comparative Politics. May be repeated up to 6 hours with different topics.
POLS 5510*
Seminar in Political Behavior. 1-3 credits, max 6. Examination of contemporary theories of political behavior with emphasis on empirical studies.
POLS 5513*
Seminar in Political Psychology. Examination of psychological theories as they pertain to political behavior, including attitude change, political cognition, public opinion and decision-making.
POLS 5613*
Seminar in Public Policy. Public policy process including policy design, implementation and change. Approaches to public policy including design science, rational choice, policy sciences, normative models, and institutionalism.
POLS 5620*
Seminar in Natural Resource Policy, Law and Administration. 3 credits, max 9. Analysis of the legal and public policy aspects of environmental regulation, including special emphasis on one of three components: environmental law, administrative law, and national resource law and policy.
POLS 5633*
Practical Environmental Compliance. Environmental decision-making, reading and understanding environmental statutes and regulations, and effectively dealing with the EPA. Environmental permitting and enforcement, policies and procedures. Review of hazardous waste regulations with emphasis on ground water problems.
POLS 5643*
Regulatory Risk Analysis. Risk-based decision making, government’s risk analysis paradigm, risk analysis policy, and social aspects of risk assessment. Review of the RCRA corrective action, CERCLA (Superfund) remedial action, and NEPA environmental impact study programs.
POLS 5653*
Risk Assessment in Emergency Management Planning. Risk assessment for the emergency manager and fire department manager. Concepts of risk assessment, its use in emergency management planning, and its limitations. Applications to emergency management. Specifically designed for FEMP students, but of interest to students in environmental management.
POLS 5663*
Community Relations in Environmental and Emergency Management. Preparation for the environmental manager, emergency manager, and fire department manager to communicate and negotiate with the public and media concerning environmental threats to human health routine and non-routine releases of chemicals and radioactive materials. Strategies for community-based planning, emergency preparedness, environmental response, site damage, and conflict management.
POLS 5673*
Understanding and Responding to Terrorism. Exploration of the experience of non-state terrorism in the U.S. and Western European democracies in the late 20th century. Understanding terrorism as a political, social, and historical phenomenon; the current and future threat of terrorism, both foreign and domestic; governmental choices in responding to terrorism in democratic societies and; U.S. anti-terrorism policies and considerations that emergency responders face in preparing for and responding to terrorist incidents.
POLS 5683*
Emergency Management and Public Policy in the United States. Examination of natural and man-made disasters in the U.S. along with the policies and programs intended to prevent, respond to, mitigate, and recover from such events. The evolution of the U.S. Emergency Management System, the emergency management profession, and future directions in emergency policy.
POLS 5693*
Emergency Management in the International Setting. Introduction to emergency management in the international setting. Provides background for students who may work with international assistance programs or who may become involved in the delivery of emergency management services abroad as part of an international assistance effect.
POLS 5703*
ProSeminar in American Politics. Overview of a wide range of classic works in American institutions and Political Behavior. It examines not only the classic works in each area of these subfields, but a sampling of current work being done in the field.
POLS 5710*
Topics Seminar in American Politics. 1-3 credits, max 6. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in American Politics. May be repeated up to 6 hours with different topics.
POLS 5713*
Seminar in Public Law. Literature of public law in the United States. Overview of the approaches that shape the theoretical and empirical contours of the public law field and contribute to multidisciplinary law and social science studies.
POLS 5720*
Topics in Political Science. 3 credits, max 6. In-depth examination of critical topics and issues in Political Science. May be repeated up to 6 hours with different topics.
POLS 5743*
Seminar in Political Communication. Examination of recent theories within politics and the media, including effects of media on opinion, role of media as a political institution and the role of media during elections.
POLS 5810*
Seminar in Women and Politics. 3 credits, max 9. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing. Research on a variety of topics concerning women and politics, including women’s movements, women and elections, and public opinion.
POLS 5903*
Practicum in Fire and Emergency Management Administration. Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor. Supervised practicum in fire and emergency management administration.
POLS 6000*
Doctoral Dissertation Research. 1-12 credits, max 60. Prerequisite(s): Admission to candidacy and consent of major professor. Research for PhD dissertation. Minimum of 24 hours must be used on plan of study.
POLS 6003*
Seminar in Fire and Emergency Management. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing. Examines scope of the fire and emergency management field as an area of academic inquiry.
POLS 6013*
Qualitative Methods for Fire and Emergency Managers. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing. Qualitative methods for collecting and analyzing data from fire and emergency management field.
POLS 6123*
Quantitative Methods for Fire and Emergency Managers. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5013 or consent of instructor. Descriptive, inferential, and non-parametric statistics with collection and analysis of data from fire and emergency management field.
POLS 6133*
Seminar in Fire and Emergency Management Research Survey. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5103, 6013, and 6123. Survey of the academic literature in the fields of fire and emergency management. Development of a research article for submission to a professional journal or conference.
POLS 6143*
Methods for Disaster Research. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5303; 5013 or 5103. History and scope of methods for disaster research.
POLS 6153*
Pedagogical Methods for Fire and Emergency Management Instruction. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing. History of FEMA education, review of instructional methods, and research on educational methods in field.
POLS 6203*
Comparative and International Dimensions of Fire Service. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5343 or consent of instructor. Comparative analysis of the organization, management, and policies of fire and emergency response services in other countries.
POLS 6213*
Political Context of Fire and Emergency Management. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5343 or consent of instructor. Analysis of political environment impacting fire service including federalism and intergovernmental relations, interest groups, other public agencies, and private sector organizations.
POLS 6313*
Mitigation. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and recommended 5303, 6143 and 6153. Structural and non-structural mitigation approaches to hazard reduction; description of policies, programs, and planning methods relevant to all governmental levels; and review of research and case studies of mitigation efforts.
POLS 6323*
Preparedness and Planning. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5303 or consent of instructor. Planning and training for hazards and disaster management at the organizational level; review of public education and preparedness efforts at the household and community level, review of research on disaster planning.
POLS 6333*
Disaster Response. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5303 or consent of instructor. Review of scientific literature on human and organizational behavior in response to disasters. Identification of actors involved in emergency response, their roles and responsibilities. Examination of human response in context of organizational structures and resources including emergency operating centers. Review of local and national government response policies.
POLS 6343*
Organizational Behavior in Disaster. Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing and 5303 or consent of instructor. Theoretical overview of organizational behavior in a disaster context. How organizations respond, adapt, fail and succeed when disrupted by disaster. Role of formal and informal organizational structures in confronting disasters.
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